Major 6 ( home assignment)
Class Assignment
Q 1. History of Translation ?
1. Introduction
Translation is an ancient human activity that dates back to the very early stages of civilization. Its history is closely tied to the development of language, culture, and interaction between societies. The earliest known translation activities were recorded as far back as the third millennium BC in ancient Babylon. There, scribes translated official documents into various languages to manage the empire’s multi-ethnic population.
Over time, translation has been seen in different lights – some viewed translators as “traitors” or “predators,” while others celebrated them as “connectors” or “bridges” between cultures. However, only in recent centuries, especially during the 20th and 21st centuries, has translation gained widespread recognition as a serious academic field. Today, it is not only considered an art but also a craft and a science, with a focus on ideology, ethics, and cultural nuances
2. Origin of Translation Studies
The term “Translation Studies” was first introduced by James S. Holmes, an American scholar living in Amsterdam, in 1972. In his paper The Name and Nature of Translation Studies, Holmes laid the foundation for a new academic field. His work provided scholars with a framework to explore translation beyond mere linguistic transfer, addressing deeper aspects such as cultural interpretation, historical influence, and literary aesthetics.
3. History of Translation
The history of translation spans thousands of years and can be divided into distinct periods, each shaped by social, political, and cultural developments.
3.1 Roman Translations
The Romans were among the first to systematically translate texts. They translated Greek works on philosophy, science, history, and religion into Latin, thereby enriching their own literary tradition. Cicero, a prominent Roman thinker, introduced two major translation methods: word-for-word (metaphrase) and sense-for-sense (paraphrase). He argued that exact translation was not always enough; a translator must adapt expressions to ensure clarity and meaning.
Horace, another Roman thinker, emphasized that translators should not rigidly follow the original but rather employ creativity to convey the message effectively. These early ideas set the stage for translation practices that balanced accuracy with readability.
3.2 The Bible Translation
The translation of the Bible played a significant role in shaping European languages and cultures. Translating the Bible into vernacular languages helped spread religious ideas, encouraged literacy, and challenged institutional misuse of religious texts.
John wycliffe was among the first to translate the Bible into English. He believed that comparing the grammar and meaning between source and target languages was crucial. His translation method laid the groundwork for later translators, who sought to balance accuracy with accessibility and literary beauty.
3.3 Renaissance Translations
The Renaissance period, marked by humanism and a focus on individual experience, influenced translation practices profoundly. Translators like the Earl of Surrey translated works creatively rather than literally, prioritizing audience understanding. This period emphasized making texts relatable and accessible rather than adhering strictly to the source text.
3.4 Translations in the Seventeenth Century
The 17th century was a period of exploration and intellectual curiosity. Rational thought and literary rules gained prominence, leading translators to adopt structured approaches. John Dryden, a renowned poet and translator, developed a classification of translation methods:
1. Metaphrase – Word-for-word translation.
2. Imitation – A free translation emphasizing creativity.
3. Paraphrase – A balanced method capturing the meaning while allowing stylistic flexibility.
Dryden favored paraphrase as it maintained the essence of the original while ensuring readability.
3.5 Translations in the 18th Century
The 18th century saw translations adapted to contemporary tastes and cultural contexts. Dr. Samuel Johnson argued that translations should be tailored to the audience of the time, asking “who” the translation is for alongside “what” and “why.” Alexander Fraser Tytler further systematized translation with three principles: completeness of content, stylistic fidelity, and natural readability. He, however, cautioned against overuse of paraphrase, advocating selective omissions and additions to clarify meaning.
3.6 Translations in the Romantic Age
Romantic translators rejected strict rationalism and embraced imagination. Figures like Coleridge and Shelley valued creativity and the literary spirit of the original text. Shelley famously stated that word-for-word translation could destroy the essence of poetry, likening it to dissecting a flower to understand its beauty.
3.7 Translations in the Victorian Age
Victorian translators sought to capture the spirit of texts while adding archaic touches to evoke a sense of historical distance. Matthew Arnold, in his lectures On Translating Homer, emphasized that translations should be judged by scholars familiar with the original language and poetry.
3.8 Translations in the 20th Century
With the rise of linguistic theories like structuralism and transformational grammar, translation practices evolved. Translators began focusing on cultural context and moved away from rigid literal translations. A balanced approach that considered both meaning and form became popular, allowing translations to resonate with contemporary readers.
3.9 Modern Translation
In the present globalized world, translation is indispensable. It bridges communication across cultures, industries, and disciplines. Modern translation extends beyond literature to include technical manuals, legal documents, scientific research, and entertainment content.
Technology, such as machine translation (e.g., Google Translate) and computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools, has transformed the field. While machines aid in speed and consistency, human translators remain essential for nuanced texts, idioms, and emotional expression. Translation today is about understanding context, purpose, and cultural depth rather than mere word substitutionconckusion
Conclusion
Translation has always been integral to human interaction. Roman translations enriched Latin culture, Bible translations empowered common people, and Renaissance translations encouraged creativity. The Restoration period saw adaptations to improve literary style, while the Romantic and Victorian eras emphasized imagination and scholarly evaluation. The 20th century introduced scientific approaches, and today’s translations combine technology with human expertise to meet the demands of global communication.
